In our time of global warming, and drastic and even pathetic time of our climate change, what can historians do? One of the answers is to focus on climate history, show how climate changed and changing. We can contribute to show how climate has changed by the reconstruction of climate of the past. We also should pay closer attention to the historical facts where the weather has been observed by whom and from when, and how?
In this presentation, I would like to focus on Japanese case study on the climate reconstruction of the past.
First, I will discuss on weather observation by the Dutch agents in the so-called closed nation period of Edo era. With the sporadic record of weather observation in the nineteenth century, we have reconstructed West-Japan Temperature series, Recent development is accompanied to the shift of methodology, from fixed point observation to moving points observation. With a large number of data, such as recorded in ship logs, we are now building Big Data of past climate. For that, we are now analyzing Dutch Navy ship log, that includes meteorological records.
Second, I explain expansion of Japanese weather observation network in the former Japanese Empire.
Through this case, I try to demonstrate climate history as an example of transnational history, and illustrate how different cultural and political entity involved.

Professionalism has the history about two hundred years and has infiltrated into our modern society. Throughout the process, it is no exaggeration to say that the global expansion of professionalism could be regarded as a kind of a cultural strategy of America.
In this presentation, I would like to overview the earliest professionalism of nineteenth century America. It was the alternative educational form long maintained in traditional colleges.
In 1829, the inauguration of Andrew Jackson as President enabled non-elites (at least white male) to participate in the center of the federal government. Since then, educational backgrounds came to be less visible, and “self-made men” were generated. Using the term of Richard Hofstadter, the time of Jacksonian Democracy could be understood as that of “anti-Intellect;” those without college education could gain their footsteps.
After a while, the early industrialists without academic career sought for it. In the early nineteenth century, these industrialists mainly tended to support practical education. The earliest phase of professionalism could be understood as the outcome of not only democracy, laissez-faire economy, but also anti-intellectual atmosphere of the Jacksonian Era.
After this overview, I would like to focus on the meteorology of the nineteenth century. According to James Rodger Fleming, meteorology had “greater potential” for American people. For them, the opening of Japan and its subsequent civilization and enlightenment might be the promising opportunity to enhance the American academic prestige. I am going to consider these matters based on primary and secondary sources.

Understanding, explaining, and predicting phenomena are part of the objectives and limits attributed to science (Weisskopf, 1977), but prediction is one of the most effective rhetorical strategies, especially if the prediction, forecast, warning or announcement is related to people's survival (Rada, 1993).
At the beginning of the 20th century, the understanding of atmospheric dynamics was in full development, with different models being tested to make weather forecasts in order to organize and make decisions about navigation, transportation and agriculture, among other activities. Sailors' observation networks and there forecasting had proven useful for the development of global navigation and trade, but their knowledge and practices were not always recognized by others scientific institutions (Valderrama & Ramírez, 2020; Valderrama, 2021).
This proposal analyses some social tensions in South America about the social utilities of forecasts of meteorological phenomena, especially those based on the theory of critical days. This theory was developed during the late 19th century by the amateur astronomer from Vienna, Rudolf Falb, and published at the beginning of the 20th century by the captain of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, Alfred Jopling Cooper (1848-1923). Cooper, like other members of the British Royal Navy, such as Robert Fitz Roy (1805-1865) or Stephen Martin Saxby (1804-1883), based his ideas on the influence of the stars and planets on the Earth's atmosphere. Cooper's connection with the Chilean Navy allowed him the circulation of his ideas in South America until 1930.

In Japan, the establishment of modern meteorological services was a national priority in the late 19th century. This initiative was initially spearheaded by various governmental organisations, but was eventually consolidated under the Ministry of Home Affairs. However, for primarily financial reasons, most meteorological stations across the country were not directly managed by the Central Meteorological Observatory under the central government, but instead operated by local governments. Furthermore, the private sector was engaged in meteorological activities, although the details of these remain uncertain.
One example is the initiative undertaken by the Sumitomo Besshi Mining Company. Their meteorological activities investigated using preserved records. The mining company employed a large number of dedicated staff, established up to 15 observation stations and reported their data to the Central Meteorological Observatory. Additionally, they disseminated meteorological forecasts and issued storm warnings These meteorological activities continued for 50 years, serving a number of purposes, including the management of mining-related vessels, the mitigation of smoke pollution, and the implementation of disaster prevention measures.
It is notable that meteorological services in the private sector did not directly contribute to the production. As national meteorological services expanded, it is probable that private sector services that had become superfluous were discontinued. It is assumed that other private sectors requiring meteorological information also conducted their own meteorological operations. Nevertheless, in the present era, only a restricted subset of these activities, particularly those that contributed to the functioning of national meteorological services, are known as exceptional cases.