This paper explores the transition in Peru from culturally-inspired investigations, within a framework called "Andean Biology", in the 1920s and 1930s to the emergence of "high-altitude studies" in the 1950s. It concentrates on political and cultural accounts of the development of physiological research on the Andes, particularly at the Medical School of Lima's University of San Marcos. Beginning in the 1920s, Peruvian scientists studied the physical and physiological mechanisms enabling the indigenous population to adapt to the low-oxygen conditions at high altitudes. Their work was closely tied to “indigenismo,” a cultural movement that celebrated the culture and potential of marginalized indigenous Andean populations. These studies, and their associated field stations, attracted global medical interest and contributed to advancements in mining, livestock management, and aviation medicine. Since the mid-1940s, Peruvian researchers entered into contracts with institutions such as the U.S. Air Force Medical School, the Committee on Medical Research within the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), and, after its establishment in 1959, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). These collaborations brought significant funding for studies assessing the performance of pilots in aerial warfare. The emerging field of "high-altitude studies" replaced the earlier framework of Andean Biology, positioning itself as a “rigorous” and "universal" scientific discipline in the context of the early Cold War. This shift effectively obliterated the cultural dimensions that had characterized medical research in the 1930s.

This presentation explores the life and work of José Manuel Dávalos (1758–1821), an Afro-Peruvian physician whose experiences exemplify the challenges and asymmetries in the global circulation of knowledge during the late 18th century. Born in Lima to a criollo father and a freed Black woman from Trujillo, Dávalos faced systemic racial barriers due to colonial “limpieza de sangre” laws that excluded Afro-descendants from universities and medical professions in Peru. Determined to overcome these obstacles, he pursued medical education at the University of Montpellier in France, studying under eminent scholars like Paul-Joseph Barthez.

In 1787, Dávalos presented his manuscript, “Memoir on the Heroic Virtues of Quinoa”, to the Royal Society of Medicine in Paris, aspiring to be recognized as a foreign member. His work emphasized the medicinal properties of quinoa, drawing from indigenous knowledge systems of the Andes. Critiquing European naturalists for their focus on taxonomy over therapeutic value, he highlighted how local and indigenous understandings could enrich global medical practice. Despite a laudatory recommendation from a Spanish diplomat, his application was rejected—likely due to social and cultural biases questioning his credibility as an Afro-Peruvian from a perceived periphery.

By analyzing Dávalos's work and the circumstances of his failed attempt to join the European scientific elite, this study sheds light on the asymmetries in the global circulation of knowledge and the obstacles faced by marginalized actors. The presentation advocates for integrating marginalized voices into the historical narrative, emphasizing that the plurality of knowledges entails embracing multiple histories and perspectives.

In the context of the transnational history of science, the concept of circulation entails a dynamism that affects not only the forms of knowledge but also their context and meaning. It is imperative to recognize that although the object of study remains constant, its use and interpretation can vary depending on the historical moment and the geographical location in which it is found. This represents a departure from the Euro-American approach, excluding the nation-state as the fundamental unit of analysis. Given these considerations, a country like Mexico was more active in producing scientific knowledge. In the years of the Cold War, specifically during the 1980s, the advent of genetic engineering saw plant breeding, together with the then-nascent biotechnology, focus on the reduction of excessive nitrogen levels caused by the intensive use of nitrogen fertilizers. For this reason, research on biological nitrogen fixation in Mexico was developed at the Center for Research on Nitrogen Fixation (CIFN) of the UNAM with an approach based on molecular biology, dedicated to studying the genetic characteristics of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms and by a significant number of international collaborations. The long-term objective was to develop plants capable of fixing nitrogen independently by manipulating and transferring nitrogen-fixing genes. This resulted in establishing a research program that facilitated the introduction of genetic engineering and the first sequencing in Mexico. Furthermore, it contributed to formulating scientific policies concerning recombinant DNA technology.

Marco David Ornelas Cruces