During the Meiji era (1868-1912), popular theories of health care in Japan came to be based on an anatomical understanding of the body and modern Western scientific approaches to medicine. Books about theories of “hygiene” or “sanitation” proliferated and gradually came to replace the long tradition of preventative health care that was called yōjō, or “nourishing life.” Many yōjōron writings in Japan came to adopt social Darwinism as their philosophy in the Meiji era, with an accompanying shift in emphasis from the internal environment within the individual body to the external environment, and from self-control to government control. Yet, this evolution in ideas produced some unique examples of confluences between the different strains of thought. This paper considers writings such as those by Seki Kansai (1830-1912), who urged people to work hard for emperor and nation so as to live a good and happy life, and Itō Shigeru (1857-1926), whose Philosophy of Nourishing Life (1897) was inspired by his encounter with social Darwinism. Yet Itō also claimed his ideas were close to those of Song dynasty Chinese scholar Su Donpo (1037–1101). These examples demonstrate the longevity, flexibility, and creative potential of the East Asian tradition of yōjō thought.

During the Qin and Han dynasties, congee (Zhōu) and soup (Gēng) functioned as staple foods and crucial components in medical practices. This study examines unearthed manuscripts, including the Mawangdui Medical Texts and the Tianhui Bamboo-Slip Manuscripts, to analyze the medicinal characteristics, development, and historical influence of congee and soup. Their applications during the Qin and Han periods were extensive, encompassing dietary therapy, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) surgical procedures, adjunctive medication, and health maintenance regimens. The recipes for these preparations were simple, accessible, and diverse. Congee was predominantly plant-based, while soup often included meat. Both were valued for regulating fluid balance, enhancing metabolism, and treating conditions such as urinary disorders, skin diseases, and insect or snake bites. Congee played a vital role in preserving Stomach Qi and maintaining overall health, with its medical use becoming standardized after the Eastern Han period. In contrast, soup was particularly effective in nourishing and repairing weakened or damaged organs. The preparation methods and applications of medicinal congee and soup during this era were highly flexible and adaptable, demonstrating significant similarity and integration. These practices highlight the advantages of traditional Chinese medicine, emphasizing simplicity, accessibility, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness. Furthermore, later generations inherited and refined the dietary formulations, therapeutic functions, and medical philosophies surrounding congee and soup, leaving a lasting legacy in TCM.

In China, with widespread practice of western medical aesthetics including plastic surgery, botox and the cult of thinness especially among young women, instances of appearance anxiety, body dysmorphic disorder, and eating disorders are on the rise. Meanwhile there is increasing focus on Chinese cosmetology derived from traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese classic aesthetics. This shift resonates with the government’s call for cultural revitalization to rejuvenate Chinese civilization, part of the “China Dream” since 2012. The new emphasis on Chinese medical cosmetology appears to liberate women from fulfilling “beauty service” based on Western beauty ideals. However, my study shows that indigenous Chinese beauty standards can actually intensify the male gaze and entrench patriarchy while advancing the booming beauty/wellness industry. My analysis focuses on how Chinese medical practitioners integrated qiyun shengdong (spirit resonance, fluid vitality), the first aesthetic canon of Xie He’s (6th Century AD) “Six Canons of Painting” in their medical aesthetic practices to promote alternative beauty standards. Tracing the philosophical and aesthetic origins of qiyun shengdong and contextualizing it in comparison with Heidegger’s notion of Stimmung (roughly mood or aesthetic attunement), I highlight qiyun aesthetics while diverging from Western beauty ideals, reinforcing the male gaze and constituting another source of mental distress.